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Expressions

Zed expressions follow the typical patterns in programming languages. Expressions are typically used within pipeline operators to perform computations on input values and are typically evaluated once per each input value this.

For example, yield, where, cut, put, sort and so forth all take various expressions as part of their operation.

Arithmetic

Arithmetic operations (*, /, %, +, -) follow customary syntax and semantics and are left-associative with multiplication and division having precedence over addition and subtraction. % is the modulo operator.

For example,

super -z -c 'yield 2*3+1, 11%5, 1/0, "foo"+"bar"'

produces

7
1
error("divide by zero")
"foobar"

Comparisons

Comparison operations (<, <=, ==, !=, >, >=) follow customary syntax and semantics and result in a truth value of type bool or an error. A comparison expression is any valid Zed expression compared to any other valid Zed expression using a comparison operator.

When the operands are coercible to like types, the result is the truth value of the comparison. Otherwise, the result is false.

If either operand to a comparison is error("missing"), then the result is error("missing").

For example,

super -z -c 'yield 1 > 2, 1 < 2, "b" > "a", 1 > "a", 1 > x'

produces

false
true
true
false
error("missing")

Containment

The in operator has the form

<item-expr> in <container-expr>

and is true if the <item-expr> expression results in a value that appears somewhere in the <container-expr> as an exact match of the item. The right-hand side value can be any Zed value and complex values are recursively traversed to determine if the item is present anywhere within them.

For example,

echo '{a:[1,2]}{b:{c:3}}{d:{e:1}}' | super -z -c '1 in this' -

produces

{a:[1,2]}
{d:{e:1}}

You can also use this operator with a static array:

echo '{accounts:[{id:1},{id:2},{id:3}]}' |
  super -z -c 'over accounts |> where id in [1,2]' -

produces

{id:1}
{id:2}

Logic

The keywords and, or, not, and ! perform logic on operands of type bool. The binary operators and and or operate on Boolean values and result in an error value if either operand is not a Boolean. Likewise, not (and its equivalent !) operates on its unary operand and results in an error if its operand is not type bool. Unlike many other languages, non-Boolean values are not automatically converted to Boolean type using "truthiness" heuristics.

Field Dereference

Record fields are dereferenced with the dot operator . as is customary in other languages and have the form

<value> . <id>

where <id> is an identifier representing the field name referenced. If a field name is not representable as an identifier, then indexing may be used with a quoted string to represent any valid field name. Such field names can be accessed using this and an array-style reference, e.g., this["field with spaces"].

If the dot operator is applied to a value that is not a record or if the record does not have the given field, then the result is error("missing").

Indexing

The index operation can be applied to various data types and has the form:

<value> [ <index> ]

If the <value> expression is a record, then the <index> operand must be coercible to a string and the result is the record's field of that name.

If the <value> expression is an array, then the <index> operand must be coercible to an integer and the result is the value in the array of that index.

If the <value> expression is a set, then the <index> operand must be coercible to an integer and the result is the value in the set of that index ordered by total order of Zed values.

If the <value> expression is a map, then the <index> operand is presumed to be a key and the corresponding value for that key is the result of the operation. If no such key exists in the map, then the result is error("missing").

If the <value> expression is a string, then the <index> operand must be coercible to an integer and the result is an integer representing the unicode code point at that offset in the string.

If the <value> expression is type bytes, then the <index> operand must be coercible to an integer and the result is an unsigned 8-bit integer representing the byte value at that offset in the bytes sequence.

Slices

The slice operation can be applied to various data types and has the form:

<value> [ <from> : <to> ]

The <from> and <to> terms must be expressions that are coercible to integers and represent a range of index values to form a subset of elements from the <value> term provided. The range begins at the <from> position and ends one before the <to> position. A negative value of <from> or <to> represents a position relative to the end of the value being sliced.

If the <value> expression is an array, then the result is an array of elements comprising the indicated range.

If the <value> expression is a set, then the result is a set of elements comprising the indicated range ordered by total order of Zed values.

If the <value> expression is a string, then the result is a substring consisting of unicode code points comprising the given range.

If the <value> expression is type bytes, then the result is a bytes sequence consisting of bytes comprising the given range.

Conditional

A conditional expression has the form

<boolean> ? <expr> : <expr>

The <boolean> expression is evaluated and must have a result of type bool. If not, an error results.

If the result is true, then the first <expr> expression is evaluated and becomes the result. Otherwise, the second <expr> expression is evaluated and becomes the result.

For example,

echo '{s:"foo",v:1}{s:"bar",v:2}' | super -z -c 'yield (s=="foo") ? v : -v' -

produces

1
-2

Conditional expressions can be chained, providing behavior equivalent to "else if" as appears in other languages.

For example,

echo '{s:"foo",v:1}{s:"bar",v:2}{s:"baz",v:3}' |
  super -z -c 'yield (s=="foo") ? v : (s=="bar") ? -v : v*v' -

produces

1
-2
9

Note that if the expression has side effects, as with aggregate function calls, only the selected expression will be evaluated.

For example,

echo '"foo" "bar" "foo"' |
  super -z -c 'yield this=="foo" ? {foocount:count()} : {barcount:count()}' -

produces

{foocount:1(uint64)}
{barcount:1(uint64)}
{foocount:2(uint64)}

Function Calls

Functions perform stateless transformations of their input value to their return value and utilize call-by value semantics with positional and unnamed arguments.

For example,

super -z -c 'yield pow(2,3), lower("ABC")+upper("def"), typeof(1)'

produces

8.
"abcDEF"
<int64>

Zed includes many built-in functions, some of which take a variable number of arguments.

Zed also allows you to create user-defined functions.

Aggregate Function Calls

Aggregate functions may be called within an expression. Unlike the aggregation context provided by a summarizing group-by, such calls in expression context yield an output value for each input value.

Note that because aggregate functions carry state which is typically dependent on the order of input values, their use can prevent the runtime optimizer from parallelizing a query.

That said, aggregate function calls can be quite useful in a number of contexts. For example, a unique ID can be assigned to the input quite easily:

echo '"foo" "bar" "baz"' | super -z -c 'yield {id:count(),value:this}' -

produces

{id:1(uint64),value:"foo"}
{id:2(uint64),value:"bar"}
{id:3(uint64),value:"baz"}

In contrast, calling aggregate functions within the summarize operator

echo '"foo" "bar" "baz"' | super -z -c 'summarize count(),union(this)' -

produces just one output value

{count:3(uint64),union:|["bar","baz","foo"]|}

Literals

Any of the data types may be used in expressions as long as it is compatible with the semantics of the expression.

String literals are enclosed in either single quotes or double quotes and must conform to UTF-8 encoding and follow the JavaScript escaping conventions and unicode escape syntax.

Formatted String Literals

A formatted string literal (or f-string) is a string literal prefixed with f. These strings may include replacement expressions which are delimited by curly braces:

f"{ <expr> }"

In this case, the characters starting with { and ending at } are substituted with the result of evaluating the expression <expr>. If this result is not a string, it is implicitly cast to a string.

For example,

echo '{numerator:22.0, denominator:7.0}' |
  super -z -c 'yield f"pi is approximately {numerator / denominator}"' -

produces

"pi is approximately 3.142857142857143"

If any expression results in an error, then the value of the f-string is the first error encountered in left-to-right order.

TBD: we could improve an error result here by creating a structured error containing the string template text along with a list of values/errors of the expressions.

F-strings may be nested, where a child <expr> may contain f-strings.

For example,

echo '{foo:"hello", bar:"world", HELLOWORLD:"hi!"}' |
  super -z -c 'yield f"oh {this[upper(f"{foo + bar}")]}"' -

produces

"oh hi!"

To represent a literal { character inside an f-string, it must be escaped, i.e., \{.

For example,

echo '"brackets"' | super -z -c 'yield f"{this} look like: \{ }"' -

produces

"brackets look like: { }"

Record Expressions

Record literals have the form

{ <spec>, <spec>, ... }

where a <spec> has one of three forms:

<field> : <expr>
<ref>
...<expr>

The first form is a customary colon-separated field and value similar to JavaScript, where <field> may be an identifier or quoted string. The second form is an implied field reference <ref>, which is shorthand for <ref>:<ref>. The third form is the ... spread operator which expects a record value as the result of <expr> and inserts all of the fields from the resulting record. If a spread expression results in a non-record type (e.g., errors), then that part of the record is simply elided.

The fields of a record expression are evaluated left to right and when field names collide the rightmost instance of the name determines that field's value.

For example,

echo '{x:1,y:2,r:{a:1,b:2}}' |
  super -z -c 'yield {a:0},{x}, {...r}, {a:0,...r,b:3}' -

produces

{a:0}
{x:1}
{a:1,b:2}
{a:1,b:3}

Array Expressions

Array literals have the form

[ <spec>, <spec>, ... ]

where a <spec> has one of two forms:

<expr>
...<expr>

The first form is simply an element in the array, the result of <expr>. The second form is the ... spread operator which expects an array or set value as the result of <expr> and inserts all of the values from the result. If a spread expression results in neither an array nor set, then the value is elided.

When the expressions result in values of non-uniform type, then the implied type of the array is an array of type union of the types that appear.

For example,

super -z -c 'yield [1,2,3],["hello","world"]'

produces

[1,2,3]
["hello","world"]

Arrays can be concatenated using the spread operator,

echo '{a:[1,2],b:[3,4]}' | super -z -c 'yield [...a,...b,5]' -

produces

[1,2,3,4,5]

Set Expressions

Set literals have the form

|[ <spec>, <spec>, ... ]|

where a <spec> has one of two forms:

<expr>
...<expr>

The first form is simply an element in the set, the result of <expr>. The second form is the ... spread operator which expects an array or set value as the result of <expr> and inserts all of the values from the result. If a spread expression results in neither an array nor set, then the value is elided.

When the expressions result in values of non-uniform type, then the implied type of the set is a set of type union of the types that appear.

Set values are always organized in their "natural order" independent of the order they appear in the set literal.

For example,

super -z -c 'yield |[3,1,2]|,|["hello","world","hello"]|'

produces

|[1,2,3]|
|["hello","world"]|

Arrays and sets can be concatenated using the spread operator,

echo '{a:[1,2],b:|[2,3]|}' | super -z -c 'yield |[...a,...b,4]|' -

produces

|[1,2,3,4]|

Map Expressions

Map literals have the form

|{ <expr>:<expr>, <expr>:<expr>, ... }|

where the first expression of each colon-separated entry is the key value and the second expression is the value. When the key and/or value expressions result in values of non-uniform type, then the implied type of the map has a key type and/or value type that is a union of the types that appear in each respective category.

For example,

super -z -c 'yield |{"foo":1,"bar"+"baz":2+3}|'

produces

|{"foo":1,"barbaz":5}|

Union Values

A union value can be created with a cast. For example, a union of types int64 and string is expressed as (int64,string) and any value that has a type that appears in the union type may be cast to that union type. Since 1 is an int64 and "foo" is a string, they both can be values of type (int64,string), e.g.,

echo '1 "foo"' | super -z -c 'yield cast(this,<(int64,string)>)' -

produces

1((int64,string))
"foo"((int64,string))

The value underlying a union-tagged value is accessed with the under function:

echo '1((int64,string))' | super -z -c 'yield under(this)' -

produces

Union values are powerful because they provide a mechanism to precisely describe the type of any nested, semi-structured value composed of elements of different types. For example, the type of the value [1,"foo"] in JavaScript is simply a generic JavaScript "object". But in Zed, the type of this value is an array of union of string and integer, e.g.,

echo '[1,"foo"]' | super -z -c 'typeof(this)' -

produces

<[(int64,string)]>

Casts

Type conversion is performed with casts and the built-in cast function.

Casts for primitive types have a function-style syntax of the form

<type> ( <expr> )

where <type> is a Zed type and <expr> is any Zed expression. In the case of primitive types, the type-value angle brackets may be omitted, e.g., <string>(1) is equivalent to string(1). If the result of <expr> cannot be converted to the indicated type, then the cast's result is an error value.

For example,

echo '1 200 "123" "200"' | super -z -c 'yield int8(this)' -

produces

1(int8)
error({message:"cannot cast to int8",on:200})
123(int8)
error({message:"cannot cast to int8",on:"200"})

Casting attempts to be fairly liberal in conversions. For example, values of type time can be created from a diverse set of date/time input strings based on the Go Date Parser library.

echo '"May 8, 2009 5:57:51 PM" "oct 7, 1970"' | super -z -c 'yield time(this)' -

produces

2009-05-08T17:57:51Z
1970-10-07T00:00:00Z

Casts of complex or named types may be performed using type values either in functional form or with cast:

<type-value> ( <expr> )
cast(<expr>, <type-value>)

For example

echo '80 8080' | super -z -c 'type port = uint16 yield <port>(this)' -

produces

80(port=uint16)
8080(port=uint16)

Casts may be used with complex types as well. As long as the target type can accommodate the value, the case will be recursively applied to the components of a nested value. For example,

echo '["10.0.0.1","10.0.0.2"]' | super -z -c 'cast(this,<[ip]>)' -

produces

[10.0.0.1,10.0.0.2]

and

echo '{ts:"1/1/2022",r:{x:"1",y:"2"}} {ts:"1/2/2022",r:{x:3,y:4}}' |
  super -z -c 'cast(this,<{ts:time,r:{x:float64,y:float64}}>)' -

produces

{ts:2022-01-01T00:00:00Z,r:{x:1.,y:2.}}
{ts:2022-01-02T00:00:00Z,r:{x:3.,y:4.}}

Expressions

Arithmetic​

Comparisons​

Containment​

Logic​

Field Dereference​

Indexing​

Slices​

Conditional​

Function Calls​

Aggregate Function Calls​

Literals​

Formatted String Literals​

Record Expressions​

Array Expressions​

Set Expressions​

Map Expressions​

Union Values​

Casts​

Arithmetic

Comparisons

Containment

Logic

Field Dereference

Indexing

Slices

Conditional

Function Calls

Aggregate Function Calls

Literals

Formatted String Literals

Record Expressions

Array Expressions

Set Expressions

Map Expressions

Union Values

Casts